Event Sponsorship as a Value Creating Strategy for Brands

Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou University of Patras, Patra, Greece Artemisia Apostolopoulou Robert Morris University, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, USA, and Theofanis Dounis University of Patras, Patras, Greece Abstract Purpose – The present research involves corporations that served as Grand National Sponsors of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games and aims to explore whether a strategic approach was employed in the acquisition and management of their Olympic sponsorship.Design/methodology/approach – A multiple case study analysis was employed, for which data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The study sample included seven of the ten Grand National Sponsors that signed agreements with ATHOC, the Organizing Committee of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. Data analysis was organized around ? ve themes inspired by the existing literature. Findings – With the exception of two ? ms, the majority of the Grand Nati onal Sponsors reported no clear or measurable objectives and limited consideration to strategic or brand-related initiatives in their decisions to invest in the national Olympic sponsorship program. However, they did report plans to invest resources to leverage their rights, even though in most cases no speci? c evaluation processes had been designed. Research limitations/implications – Given that the Olympic Games are organized every four years in a new location, the ? ndings of this research may not ? d direct application to other markets and organizing committees that implement their own sponsorship programs. Nevertheless, this research did show relatively poor recognition of the role of sponsorship in creating value and building the corporate brand. Corporations considering becoming involved in sport sponsorship and also event organizers are encouraged to adopt a more strategic approach in the sponsorship solicitation and management process. Originality/value – Exi sting literature has discussed the role of sport sponsorship in brand management and the communication mix, and has highlighted the bene? s for ? rms that establish long-term ties with the Olympic Games. The present research adds to that line of work by highlighting if and how a strategic and brand building approach was adopted in the context of national-level Olympic partnerships. Keywords Sponsorship, Olympic Games, Brand management, Corporate strategy Paper type Research paper An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article. Introduction The meaning of sponsorship as an integral element of the marketing mix has been conceptualised by Sandler and Shani (1993) with the following de? ition: â€Å"[Sponsorship is] the provision of resources (money, people, or equipment) by an organization directly to an event or activity in exchange for a direct association to the event or activity† (p. 39). Corporate spending on sport sponsorshi p in many European countries and in North America has increased dramatically (Lachowetz et al. , 2003). Global spending on sponsorship was estimated to reach $US28 billion in 2004 (from $US25. 9 billion in 2003) of which, according to the The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www. meraldinsight. com/1061-0421. htm Journal of Product & Brand Management 17/4 (2008) 212– 222 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1061-0421] [DOI 10. 1108/10610420810887563] International Events Group, 69 per cent relates to sporting events (International Events Group, n. d. ). There is plenty of evidence that sport sponsorship, including Olympic sponsorship, can be very effective in achieving a number of objectives, not the least of which is competitive advantage related to brand image and reputation (Amis et al. 1997; Copeland et al. , 1996; Meenaghan, 1998). The sport marketing literature provides some discussion on the value of sport sponsorship in also deli vering other bene? ts, such as increased awareness levels, sales and greater market share, and opportunities to develop employee and client (i. e. hospitality) relations (e. g. Abratt et al. , 1987; Apostolopoulou and Papadimitriou, 2004; Irwin and Asimakopoulos, 1992; Lough et al. , 2000; Ludwig and Karabetsos, 1999; Scott and Suchard, 1992). The technological developments related to porting, events along with the growing interest of the media for such activities, account to some extent for the steady increase of sport-related sponsorship investments (Meenaghan, 1998; Shilbury et al. , 2003). Meanwhile, the decreasing corporate trust in the ef? ciency of traditional media advertising channels may also explain why corporate investments in sport follow a growing trend (Meenaghan, 1998). Despite the pervasive appeal of the sport sector, however, companies have plenty of other event options at a local, national and international level from which to choose; thus greater emphasis on retu rn of 212Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 investment will prevail their sponsorship decisions (Copeland et al. , 1996). Also, as the corporate demand for accountability in marketing expenditure increases, so does the need for a deeper understanding of the unique elements of event sponsorships as a strategic resource and a tool of marketing (Meenaghan, 1998; Thwaites et al. , 1998). Given the potential bene? ts involved in sponsorship, and in order to maximize ? ancial and other returns, corporations need to be strategic not only in their choice of properties (sport or other) with which to form partnerships but also in the allocation of resources to those agreements. Businesses must consider strategic priorities that suit their needs and systematically exploit the opportunities within their markets, and engage in partnerships that are aligned with those priorities. Furthermore, within those partnerships they need to link corporate objectives to particular strategic initiatives, a process that could turn sponsorship to a value-creating strategy capable of creating a distinctive advantage.Surprisingly, research is scarce on corporate sponsorship and its importance as a strategic resource and a brand management tool. As Meenaghan (1998) stresses, â€Å"The sponsorship literature has traditionally viewed sponsorship as an activity largely similar to advertising and generally, though not always, spoken of in terms of short- rather than long-term horizons† (p. 25). Indeed, most existing studies are descriptive, and focus on objectives and general motivation for making those kinds of investments (e. g. Berrett and Slack, 1999; Cornwell and Maignan, 1998; Doherty and Murray, 2007).Amis (2003) has also outlined the dearth of research on how intangible resources are identi? ed and managed in relation to image and reputation through sport sponsorship. This is also re? ected in the industry, as many companies invest immense resources but still ignore the capacity of sport sponsorship for ensuring longer-term bene? ts (Amis et al. , 1999). Accordingly, the present study attempts to explore the adoption (or not) of a strategic approach to the sponsorship process on the part of large companies involved in Olympic sponsorship.This is a research avenue that has been largely unexplored in the existing literature. and ideals and on leveraging its key brand on a national and international level. The Olympic Partner (TOP) program, which represents the IOC’s sponsorship program, holds a key role in the IOC’s overall marketing efforts as it attracts the interest of many international corporations due to a number of factors, including the long-term (a required minimum of four years) linkage to a very attractive intellectual property, exclusive global marketi ng rights, and the principle of product/service-category exclusivity. The ? st TOP program (1985-1988) involved nine partners and generated $US95 million, a far cry from the more lucrative 2001-2004 program, which engaged 11 corporations contributing $US603 million. Global corporations like Visa, Coca-Cola, Kodak and Panasonic view this type of partnership as strategic, and this is manifested by the fact that since 1986 all of them have invested considerable resources to remain part of the program until at least the 2012 Olympic Games. The IOC has extended their particularly successful marketing concept to a lower stage by introducing Olympic sponsorships at the national level.Revenues from those sponsorships contribute to the ever-increasing cost of hosting the event. The Organizing Committees of the Olympic Games (OCOGs) manage this program, which involves an array of sponsors, suppliers and providers from the host country (provided they are approved by the IOC). The 2000 Olympics attracted the interest of 93 such national partners who contributed $US492 million to the Organizing Committee of the Sydney Games (SOCOG), while the 2004 Olympic Games held in Athens generated e570 million through their national Olympic sponsorship program (Jeanrenaud, 2006).Present research The present study focuses on the national companies that signed on as Grand National Sponsors of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games and explores the role of these partnerships in sponsors’ brand management efforts, as perceived by company executives, as well as the degree to which these sponsors’ approach to their Olympic sponsorship was strategic. Furthermore, sponsors’ plans to integrate the sponsorship in corporate strategy and to exploit rights received by the Organizing Committee are also discussed. Given the increased pressure of corporations to maximize ef? iency in the use of their resources and to avoid opportunity cost, there is much interest in identifying whether a strategic approach was adopted in these companies’ Olympic involvement. The practices of these sponsors could provide valuable insight not only to other ? rms considering investment in sport sponsorship, but also to event organizing committees aiming to secure corporate support. The remainder of the paper includes a review of relevant literature, followed by a summary of the methodology and the ? ndings of the study.The paper concludes with a discussion of the theoretical contributions of the study and also practical recommendations for brand management and marketing executives as well as sport property representatives. Corporate sponsorship and Olympic Games The Olympic Games hold a few distinctive characteristics that make the event a particularly desirable property for a wide range of sponsors, but also for conducting research. First of all, it is a unique and highly prestigious event with a strong ability to reach a global audience through television networks.Secondly, th e marketing program and policies of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the governing body of the Olympic Movement and the Olympics, actively preserve exclusivity for the limited number of international and national sponsorships and favor long-term partnerships. The IOC has worked extensively to raise awareness about how corporate contributions enhance the Olympic Movement and invests resources to achieve sponsor recognition. Thirdly, Olympic sponsorships are linked to attractive hospitality packages, which corporations value highly for networking, roduct display, and employee incentive purposes. Continuing a pattern which began in the late 1980s, sponsorship investments in the Olympic Games have increased exponentially, accounting for 34 per cent of the IOC’s $US4 billion Olympic marketing revenue for the 2001-2004 Olympic quadrennium (International Olympic Committee, n. d. ). This is the end result of the IOC’s strategic plan, which since 1985 has focused syst ematically on enhancing the Olympic image 213 Literature reviewThe review of literature is structured around three themes: 1 sponsorship and corporate strategy; 2 the integration of sponsorship within corporate marketing efforts; and 3 sponsorship and brand management. Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Sponsorship and corporate strategy Understanding what companies do or do not do to remain competitive in a constantly changing environment is at the heart of strategic thinking.Practice has shown that sport sponsorship, because of the bene? ts associated with those agreements, is a frequent strategic choice of many multinational corporations. Of the most indicative examples are Coca-Cola, Kodak and Visa International, three companies with long-standing relationships with the Olympic Games. These partic ular ? rms have integrated those agreements well into their long-term marketing strategies and are continuously promoting their involvement in order to gain competitive advantage (Farrell and Frame, 1997).However, such costly agreements cannot be treated in an ad hoc manner. Successful corporations are well aware that sponsorship deals should be approached as a resource, with the capability to lead to distinctive competence if effectively combined with other organizational resources (Amis et al. , 1997, 1999). Sport sponsorship, if viewed as a strategic resource, can support brand management objectives by enhancing brand image and reputation and by assisting the company to gain competitive advantage in targeted marketplaces (Amis, 2003).This, however, implies that corporations are prepared to engage in long-term commitments and to actively exploit those agreements, or otherwise face the disappointment of low return on their investment. Though limited, research evidence has shown tha t many companies engage in sport sponsorship with limited planning and integration (Farrelly et al. , 1997; Polonsky et al. , 1995). A few companies make those investments with con? ned understanding of the range of bene? ts involved and how those bene? s can be realized. They even lack the growing knowledge of the nature of the particular communication means and this is depicted on their objectives and the poor rationale for involvement. The empirical results of Farrelly et al. (1997) with a sample of North American and Australian companies engaged in sport sponsorship showed that more time is spent into negotiating deals than in integration and planning. Moreover, their research showed that a few North American ? ms approached sponsorship management as a strategic tool, whereas the majority of Australian businesses concentrated more on the communication opportunities of sponsorship (Farrelly et al. , 1997). Similarly, Amis et al. (1999) have provided evidence that companies often engage in sponsorship without integrating it in other marketing initiatives. The consequence involves delivering an unclear and inconsistent image to the customer. Any company considering entering into a sponsorship agreement should ? rst assess the potential bene? s and the probability of gaining a competitive position in the marketplace and then make a decision of whether or not to invest in the sponsorship. Building on the work of Hamel and Prahalad (1994), Amis et al. (1999) argue that sport sponsorship can become a potential source of competitive advantage if it meets three criteria: 1 it allows for a signi? cant increase in the perceived customer value of the service or product; 2 it permits for differentiating the brand from the competitors; and 3 it provides space for exploiting the deal through new services and products. 14 The employment of sport as a strategic tool for developing a position of competitive advantage is well described by Amis (2003) in reference to the case study of Guinness. That particular company has used sport extensively and consistently to build a unifying brand message on a global level. This was achieved by ? rst engaging in a global survey to identify a â€Å"key brand bene? t† (â€Å"Guinness brings out your inner strength†) that would unify its global brand and also ensure differentiation from other popular beer brands (Amis, 2003, p. 200).Secondly, the company used sport and sport sponsorship as a central element of its brand positioning strategy, creating advertisements featuring athletes and driving on-trade promotions and sales during world sporting events (Amis, 2003). The critical element of Olympic sponsorship is that it offers sponsors the opportunity to make use of unique business opportunities by providing concrete rights and speci? c bene? ts associated with the strongest sporting brand in the world (i. e. the Olympic Games), depending on the sponsorship category.Accordingly, and given the competiti ve nature of the growing Olympic sponsorship industry, other sport and non-sport sponsorship options, and the signi? cant resource investment required to get into a sponsorship agreement, strategic thinking becomes critical. Following the example of multinational corporations, one would expect that sponsors involved in Olympic sponsorships on the national level should also engage ? rst and foremost in fundamental strategic thinking related to company brand management efforts and overall corporate strategy, and consider how a potential sponsorship agreement would enhance corporate strategy and objectives.This question is the point of exploration of the present study. Integrating sponsorship into organizational marketing In her discussion on sponsorship-linked marketing development, Cornwell (1995) proposes a model of sponsorship development. That model involves six steps, each linked to the next, including: 1 analysis of the situation; 2 determination of objectives; 3 development of sponsorship-related strategy; 4 creation of sponsorship link; 5 sponsorship implementation; and 6 sponsorship evaluation.In another research effort to standardize the process of selecting a sport sponsorship program and utilizing it as a viable marketing tool, Arthur et al. (1998) proposed a multistep process that involved many of the points discussed earlier by Cornwell. The authors emphasized the necessity of a careful consideration of all options available to an organization in order to achieve company objectives, as well as the need to incorporate the sponsorship within the organization, manage, activate, and evaluate it (Arthur et al. , 1998).Therefore, it should be stressed that sport sponsorship can be an invaluable tool as long as it is fully integrated into a ? rm’s marketing and communication efforts. This involves ? rst of all placement of the corporate sponsorship activities into the marketing departments, clear and appropriate objectives and planning, and full in tegration into the communication mix. Otherwise, sponsorship activities, including those linked to the Olympic Games can be turned into costly mistakes with no substantial return on investment.Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Sponsorship and brand management Wong and Merrilees (2005) stress that, in pursuing competitive advantage in the marketplace, the brand should be in the heart of corporate strategy. In other words, managers should be able to combine corporate, marketing and promotional plans in a brand-based strategy, which can offer their company a sustainable edge over their competitors and lead to high levels of brand equity.Brand equity is one of the most fundamental signi? ers of a powerful brand because it represents the end result of strong brand loyalty, high name awareness, positive br and image, favorable brand associations, and the perception of superior quality (Aaker, 1991). As companies strive to build powerful brands with high value in the marketplace, sport sponsorship can serve as a tool for supporting brand management objectives (Amis, 2003; Sandler and Shani, 1993).Establishing and exploiting a partnership with a sport property can assist a company to strengthen some or all of the elements of brand equity and consequently increase the overall value of its brand (Roy and Cornwell, 2003). A few authors have discussed sport sponsorship’s role in enhancing brand image and reputation, increasing brand awareness and familiarity, and altering public perceptions (e. g. Amis et al. , 1997; Cornwell et al. , 2001; Gwinner and Eaton, 1999; Irwin and Asimakopoulos, 1992). Bene? s have also been reported in terms of brand personality and brand differentiation (Amis et al. , 1999; Cornwell et al. , 2001). The brand-related bene? ts outlined above can be deliver ed with an even greater effectiveness via Olympic sponsorship agreements. Brown (2000) discussed how AMP (an insurance and investment company) and Visa, both companies in the services sector, used their Olympic sponsorship of the 2000 Olympic Games for brand development and brand differentiation initiatives. Crimmins and Horn (1996) have also reported that Visa has bene? ed from measurable changed perceptions of its brand over MasterCard as a result of the Olympic sponsorship. Furthermore, Stipp (1998) showed that managers are well aware of how sponsor image is signi? cantly affected by the special qualities of Olympic advertising, the favorable public attitudes toward Olympic sponsorship, and the strength of the association between the sponsor and the Olympics. This is attributed to the fact that the general public expresses high respect for the Olympic Games and attaches special value to Olympic sponsorship (Stipp, 1998).Even though there is evidence that sport sponsorship, and pa rticularly Olympic sponsorship, is a distinctive resource capable of ful? lling brand management objectives, it should be stated that its effectiveness depends on active management (Amis, 2003; Cornwell et al. , 2001), appropriate and adequate leveraging (Chalip and Leyns, 2002), and longterm agreements which allow time for strong associations to be developed between events and brands (Keller, 1993). Companies should not make the mistake of mismanaging sport sponsorship agreements.They should approach these agreements as a distinctive resource, which needs to be integrated within other company activities in order to produce sustainable competitive advantage (Amis et al. , 1999). Sample On the national level, ATHOC, the Organizing Committee of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, instituted a sponsorship program, the National Sponsoring Programme, which offered three levels of involvement: 1 Grand Sponsor; 2 Of? cial Supporter; and 3 Of? cial Provider.This sponsorship program contributed a total of e570 million to the Organizing Committee’s budget (Jeanrenaud, 2006). The present research effort focused on the highest of the three levels, the Grand Sponsors. It was assumed that, given the size of the companies and the extent of their investment, there were higher chances that a strategic and/or brand building orientation would have been adopted at that level. Therefore, the sample for this study was drawn from the population of the Grand National Olympic Sponsors of ATHOC. The ten ompanies that served as Grand sponsors were 1 Alpha Bank (private bank); 2 Athenian Brewery (beer producer); 3 DELTA (dairy product company, co-sponsor with FAGE); 4 FAGE (dairy product company, co-sponsor with DELTA); 5 Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT, national broadcasting company); 6 Hellenic Post (ELTA, national postal services provider); 7 Hellenic Telecommunications Organization (OTE, national telecommunications company); 8 Hyundai Hellas (automotive company); 9 Olympic A irlines (national airline company); and 10 Public Power Corporation SA (DEI, national electrical power provider).Data collection The design of this research involved a multiple case study approach. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with the Marketing Directors or other company executives responsible for coordinating the Olympic sponsorship activities of their particular organization. The particular research design was deemed appropriate for the study objectives as it facilitated the exploratory nature of this research. It also allowed for motivating the interviewees to explore and discuss aspects of their sponsorship-related thinking and enabled in-depth probing into unexpected issues during the discussion.Interviews took place between January and May 2004, and the duration of each interview was approximately one hour. Research efforts resulted in a total of seven of the possible ten interviews. Consequently, all results are based on information from t he seven sponsors interviewed. An interview guide was developed to incorporate the following key themes: . the reason(s) for which the ? rms entered into the Olympic sponsorship agreement; . the way(s) in which the Olympic sponsorship was integrated into the ? rms’ overall corporate strategy, their marketing strategy, and their brand management efforts; . he amount of resources deployed into the sponsorship; . the initiatives introduced to leverage the sponsorship; and . companies’ plans to evaluate the effectiveness of their Olympic sponsorship. 215 Methodology The present study follows a multiple case study approach to investigate the extent to which Grand Sponsors of the 2004 Olympic Games were involved in strategic planning and systematic leveraging activities related to their Olympic sponsorship agreements. Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis DounisJournal of Product & Brand Manage ment Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Data analysis In an effort to explore whether a strategic approach was adopted (or not) by the Grand Sponsors of the 2004 Olympics in the acquisition and management of their sponsorship, the present study focused on four indicators, namely: 1 sponsors’ stated goals and/or objectives; 2 resources allocated to the acquisition and activation of the sponsorship; 3 sponsorship leveraging initiatives; and 4 sponsorship evaluation plans The study attempted to assess the degree to which each of these areas was considered in the sponsorship process.In addition, the perceptions of company-sponsor representatives in terms of the incorporation of their sponsorship in the overall corporate strategy and brand management efforts were used as a ? fth indicator. These ? ve elements were chosen to frame the analysis because they have been proposed in past research (Arthur et al. , 1998; Cornwell, 1995) as indicators of a strategic app roach to sport sponsorship, and thus were deemed appropriate for the objectives of the present research.All data received through the interviews were therefore contentanalyzed based on those ? ve parameters. Results A discussion on each of the ? ve parameters as they relate to the seven companies-sponsors in the sample is presented in the following section. Sponsorship as part of corporate strategy and brand management efforts In order to explore whether a strategic approach was adopted in the acquisition of the Olympic sponsorship at the national level, companies were asked to discuss how iOlympic sponsorship ? tted in their overall (i. . corporate) brand management strategy. From the responses received to that question alone, it appeared that two of the seven companies in the sample clearly saw this sponsorship as an opportunity to support major shifts in the structure and orientation of their companies. More speci? cally, Alpha Bank, a private bank that had gone through a merger in recent years, saw its Olympic sponsorship as a way to support the union of the two banks that merged and also as a cause behind which to unite the two distinct cultures and staffs.Its involvement with the Olympics was seen as a platform to promote the new, post-merger company and to solidify its new name and identity in the minds of consumers. ELTA, the main postal services provider in Greece, which had been a sponsor of the ? rst modern Olympic Games held in Athens in 1896, was also going through major changes at the time leading up to the Olympic Games as the company was preparing for an initial public offering (IPO). Their main interest was to use their Olympic sponsorship to strengthen and promote their corporate image.According to a company representative, â€Å"we want to promote a modern image of effectiveness and quality; a humane image† (personal communication, February 2, 2004). Their investment in this sponsorship intended to support the company’s brand r epositioning efforts that focused on promoting a more positive, a more customer- and service-oriented image. In addition to the role of the sponsorship in shaping a new image 216 for the company, it served as a means to celebrate a milestone in company history, i. e. the 175th anniversary of the establishment of the organization. When asked the same question of how their Olympic sponsorship ? ted with their brand management efforts, the remaining ? ve companies in the sample did not discuss any strategic initiatives that were supposed to be supported by the sponsorship. Instead, they provided reasons for which they decided to become a sponsor. Athenian Brewery, a beer producer, and DELTA, one of the dairy product co-sponsors, mentioned that their decision to become a sponsor was driven primarily by the fact that the Olympic Games was the largest and most important athletic event to occur in the modern history of the country, while the other three cited being a logical choice for the pro? e and size of their company (FAGE, dairy product co-sponsor); obliging to a matter of honor (Olympic Airlines, airline); and supporting their company’s social responsibility strategy (DEI, power provider) as their rationale for entering into those agreements. Even though it seems that, from their responses to that question alone, these ? ve sponsors did not consider any strategic or brand-related initiatives in their decisions to become involved in the program, there was some relevant information that ould be deciphered from their commentary on their sponsorship objectives, which indicates that some consideration of corporate strategy or branding was present. That information is discussed in the following section. Stated goals and/or objectives All of the companies in the sample seemed to have, to a greater or lesser extent, some stated goals for this sponsorship. However, with the exception of two cases, none of them were speci? c or measurable. In general, stated goal s/objectives fell into two categories: 1 pro? -oriented (i. e. sales); or 2 brand-oriented. Table I outlines companies’ goals and/or objectives in terms of their Olympic sponsorship agreements and groups them based on their orientation. In terms of the pro? t-oriented goals/objectives, the majority of the sponsors in the sample seemed to agree that increasing sales for one or all of their products/services was one of their goals. Olympic Airlines, the national airline company, had speci? c objectives in terms of the amount of additional traf? it would generate during the summer months and was also expecting long-term repeat business. Alpha Bank, the private bank, was more speci? c in terms of the group it was targeting; it was looking to attract a younger demographic for its services. As was noted, â€Å"we are aiming to attract a younger audience [as] the pro? le of our clients is middle age† (personal communication, January 20, 2004). Interestingly, there was also th e case of one sponsor (ELTA, postal services provider) that did not declare any speci? pro? t-oriented goals, but rather expressed a desire to at least make up the money they invested in acquiring the sponsorship. As stated by a company representative, one of their goals was â€Å"to cover the minimum guaranteed amount spent to acquire the sponsorship† (personal communication, February 2, 2004). The same company representative indicated that they did not view their Olympic sponsorship as a means that would produce any signi? cant commercial bene? ts and that the ? ancial returns were expected to be marginal. In addition to the pro? t-oriented goals, there were also other stated goals/objectives related to some aspects of brand Table I Goals/objectives of Grand National Olympic sponsors Brand-oriented goals/objectives Brand awareness, recognition Brand loyalty Integrate staff members of two banks Integrate two company cultures Brand associations Brand image, positioning Organi zational culture, employees (internal branding)Other goals/ objectives Grand National Olympic Pro? t-oriented goals/ sponsors objectives Alpha Bank Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Strengthen employee relations through leveraging initiatives Support the efforts of ATHOC – altruism 217 Receive moral bene? ts Increase market share Establish the new bank name in the minds of consumers Gain new customers Attract younger consumers Generate pro? of e50 million Athenian Increase sales (target group: Enhance brand recognition Create a legacy Make Heineken a yearBrewery 18-34) of Heineken after the Games round beer Community involvement DELTA Increase sales Create brand recognition, Community Strengthen company image awareness involvement Project interest in community matters and the country FAGE Generate sales from visitors Promote products abroad Turn foreign visitors into upon return to th eir Create brand awareness consumers of their countries among visitors (foreign products consumers) Hellenic Post [Avoid losses – make up the Create a positive image, (ELTA) money spent on sponsorship] customer- and serviceoriented Support company repositioning efforts Increase prestige as a new Olympic Airlines Increase traf? c by 150,000 Generate exposure and buzz post-Games company travelers (e50 million) Generate repeat travel in the future Create image of trust and Public Power Create credibility association Corporation, SA with the event Create prestige (DEI) Strengthen social pro? le of company Unite employees behind common effort Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Serve noble cause of sponsorship Coordinate communications under one strategy Take advantage of sponsorship rightsEvent sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 management. More speci? cally, the two areas that seemed to be more prevalent in sponsors’ priorities were brand awareness and recognition and brand image. Five of the seven sponsors in the sample stated that they were interested in raising awareness/recognition levels for their brands or a particular product under their brand. For Athenian Brewery, the beer producer, the goal was â€Å"to enhance brand recognition for Heineken [one of the products of that company] [. . . ] to promote Heineken and make it a year-round beer† (personal communication, March 4, 2004).Alpha Bank, the private bank, was more interested in raising people’s awareness of the new name of the bank, while FAGE, one of the dairy product co-sponsors, was focused on making foreign consumers who were visiting Greece for the Games familiar with their products in hope that they would continue consumption upon return to their native countries. The second aspect of brand building that seemed to be important amongst at least four of the seven Grand National Olympic sponsors in the sample was brand image. Through association with an event as grandiose and unique as the Olympic Games, sponsors felt they could create a more positive image for their company.This goal was particularly important for ELTA, the postal services provider that was hoping that the sponsorship would support its repositioning efforts. As their representative stated, â€Å"our company is at the stage of planning or promoting a change in its nature and orientation [. . . ] we are now shifting from the era of the citizen to the era of the customer, and that is important† (personal communication, February 2, 2004). Using the sponsorship to create an image of trust and credibility was one of the goals of DEI, the national power provider, while projecting their company’s interest in the community and the country and cr eating prestige as a new company were goals expressed by DELTA (dairy product co-sponsor) and Olympic Airlines (airline), respectively.Another area related to branding, other than the two mentioned above, which also became evident from the data, is the use of sponsorship for purposes of branding within the organization (i. e. internal branding). Two of the companies in the sample, Alpha Bank (private bank) and DEI (power provider), indicated that they saw their Olympic sponsorship as a means to promote employee relations. According to the representative of one of the sponsors (DEI), â€Å"[one of the goals of our company for the Olympic sponsorship is] to unite employees around a vision and a common effort† (personal communication, May 6, 2004). A third company, DELTA (dairy product producer), made reference to that goal not directly, but through the discussion of their sponsorship activation initiatives.In addition to the two main groups of goals, there were also some other goals/objectives expressed by Grand National Olympic sponsors. Those re? ected mainly altruistic motives and moral bene? ts sought through their involvement in the particular sponsorship program. Allocated resources Another indication of whether a sponsorship is seen as an investment and a brand building tool is the amount of resources invested in the process. There were two types of resources examined in this study, i. e. human and material resources. Furthermore, material resources were distinguished between in-cash versus in-kind, and those invested in the acquisition versus the activation of the sponsorship. 218In terms of human resources allocated to their Olympic sponsorship, all companies in the sample formed some type of committee that was responsible for managing all sponsorshiprelated activities. The size of those committees ranged from two to 15 members and, in most cases, membership included employees from a number of departments within the organization. Furthermore, two of the companies in the sample, Alpha Bank and Athenian Brewery, discussed their intention to involve their employees in the process by initiating employee Olympic volunteer programs. Not all sponsors in the sample were willing to disclose the ? nancial investments they made to acquire their Olympic sponsorships. Of the seven companies in the sample, six provided some information in terms of the ? nancial resources allocated to becoming a Grand Olympic sponsor.From the information provided through the interviews, it was concluded that Athenian Brewery and DELTA invested in cash only, DEI invested in kind only, while Alpha Bank, ELTA and Olympic Airlines invested both in cash and in kind. In general, there seemed to be a commitment toward the sponsorship, which became more apparent from the stated intentions of sponsors to allocate ? nancial resources in sponsorship activation initiatives. Even though all seven companies in the sample discussed some sponsorship activation plans, onl y four of the sponsors (Alpha Bank, Athenian Brewery, FAGE, Olympic Airlines) mentioned that they were planning to invest ? ancial resources on that aspect, with two of those (Alpha Bank and Olympic Airlines) disclosing the speci? c amounts. Some more information on sponsorship activation is provided in the section below. Sponsorship activation In addition to the resources allocated to sponsorship activation, information was collected on speci? c leveraging initiatives. Although there was some variation in terms of the means chosen by each company to activate their sponsorship, most initiatives involved the use of the Olympic logo and symbols as well as the Olympic mascots on sponsors’ products, employees, distribution vehicles, and at points of sale. The most common sponsorship activation initiatives involved Olympic-themed sales promotions (e. g. ontests), themed packaging, new products (e. g. Olympic-themed credit card), and collectible pins. Furthermore, three of the spon sors in the sample (Alpha Bank, ELTA and Olympic Airlines) mentioned the existence of a hospitality program for their clients or partners. In terms of the use of communication media to activate their Olympic sponsorship, the most popular choices appeared to be advertising through mass electronic (e. g. television) and print (e. g. newspaper) media, posters and billboards, displays at sponsors’ distribution outlets or specially created kiosks, and internal company communication media or publications (e. g. employee newsletter).Surprisingly, the use of the internet and the companies’ websites (provided one existed) did not appear to be prevalent, with only three sponsors (Athenian Brewery, Alpha Bank and FAGE) mentioning its use in leveraging their sponsorship agreement, while three other companies (DELTA, ELTA and Olympic Airlines) indicated that promotion through the internet would be limited. Sponsorship evaluation Of all ? ve indicators used to determine the role of these sponsorship agreements in companies’ strategy and brand management efforts, this measure is probably the one for Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 which more general and more vague responses were received.With the exception of three companies that either did not provide any information on this area (Alpha Bank) or provided very general information (Olympic Airlines and DEI), the remaining sponsors in the sample indicated at least some plans to measure sales, company awareness/recognition levels, and perceived image amongst consumers, or to conduct cost-bene? t analyses after the Games. Discussion In light of the ? ndings received from a representative group of the Grand National Sponsors of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, some general observations and practical recommendations are offered for marketing and brand management executives interested in investing in sport sponsorship. Firstly, even though the marketing literature has repeatedly cautioned corporate executives about the need to be strategic with their decisions to invest in sponsorship and also in the selection of an appropriate property that could further corporate objectives (e. g. Farrelly et al. , 1997; Meenaghan, 1998), the ? dings of this study indicate that only a small number of the national sponsors of the Athens Olympic Games truly saw this sponsorship as a tool to further corporate strategy. For a number of other ? rms becoming a sponsor was explained by generally stated objectives of assisting the Organizing Committee’s efforts to put on a good event of the greatest national importance. However, even those companies that did not speak about corporate strategy and brand management made it clear throughout their interviews that solidifying an association with the Olympic Games could affect their brand image and positioning in a positive manner. The use of words such as â€Å"legacy†, â€Å"honor†, â€Å"prestige† and â€Å"image† indicates that these companies were well aware of how an of? ial relationship with an event as unique as the Olympic Games and as important for the history of the country (i. e. Greece) would help to build strong brand associations. This con? rms past research suggesting that sport sponsorship can be used as a brand-building tool through the creation of positive and favorable brand associations (e. g. Amis, 2003; Roy and Cornwell, 2003). Secondly, the companies in the sample highlighted the key strengths of their national Olympic sponsorships by stating the goals and objectives attached to those agreements, even though they were not, in most cases, speci? c or measurable as it has been recommended through past literature (e. g. Arthur et al. , 1998).Interestingly, many of the goals and objectives stated were brand- related. It was evident through the interviews that companies recognized the opportunity to sharpen their brand image and increase levels of brand awareness, but also saw the chance to do that in a favorable light by taking advantage of the positive feelings and emotions people had toward the Olympic Games. Being seen as one of the contributors to an event as important to the country and its citizens – even though not directly related to pro? toriented objectives – if achieved, could have led to positive outcomes via strengthening the company’s image and emotional connection with current and potential consumers.Past research also has connected the existence of positive brand associations to favorable consequences for brands (e. g. Amis, 2003; Gladden et al. , 1998). Thirdly, it appeared from the data that all the companies created teams to manage their sponsorships and, in most 219 cases, those teams involved employees from a number of departments. The involveme nt of various departments in the sponsorship management process could indicate efforts of sponsors to integrate their Olympic sponsorship throughout their organizations. Furthermore, for those companies that decided to involve their employees via Olympic volunteer programs or to incorporate employee bene? s and special corporate hospitality programs, it seems that they also saw this sponsorship as a tool to build employee relations and strengthen their brand internally. Fourthly, the willingness of companies to allocate resources not only in becoming sponsors but also in leveraging their sponsorship relationships indicates an even greater commitment in using this sponsorship as a brand building tool and receiving full bene? ts from their involvement – even though that was not clear from responses related to the ? rst indicator. It also implies that companies saw value in the intellectual property of the Olympic Games and in the rights received through their agreements with th e Organizing Committee. Although most of the managers interviewed failed to report with speci? ity the resources committed in sponsorship activation, this ? nding is in agreement with previous research that proposes spending money to leverage the associated bene? ts of a sponsorship (e. g. the $2-for-$1 additional spending found by Farrelly et al. , 1997). The leveraging initiatives described throughout the interviews were clearly efforts to capitalize on the positive feelings and enthusiasm that were widespread throughout the country. Using a variety of promotional and communications initiatives to take advantage of product/service category exclusivity rights (even for the two dairy product producers that signed on as co-sponsors) and of the of? cial af? iation with the Olympic Games could provide a competitive advantage to those corporations and differentiate them from their competition. Lastly, the lack of data on sponsorship evaluation plans might imply that assessment of the ef fectiveness of process and of the ful? llment of goals might not be an area to which companies devoted much energy, at least in the early stages of their sponsorship relationship. This ? nding is consistent with the existing literature, which indicates that many companies spend signi? cant resources on sponsorship agreements but fail to establish formal sponsorship evaluation systems or procedures (Miyazaki and Morgan, 2001).Furthermore, the fact that most objectives stated throughout the interviews were rather general and not speci? c could make any effort to evaluate the effectiveness of these sponsorship agreements even harder. Consistent with past literature (e. g. Cornwell, 1995; Meenaghan, 1998), in this case it is also strongly recommended that plans to measure whether corporate objectives were achieved should be an integral part of the sponsorship design and implementation, and not merely an afterthought. Olympic sponsorships, especially at the national level, are somewhat u nique in that they are typically once-ina-lifetime opportunities, with sponsorship renewal being less of an issue. Even so, easuring return on investment could prove valuable in guiding a company through future decisions to invest in sport or other sponsorship opportunities. Managerial implications and conclusions Given the increased pressure on corporations to maximize ef? ciency in operations and maximize return on all company investments, sport sponsorship has naturally fallen under Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 scrutiny in terms of its potential to further corporate goals and help strengthen the brand.The main contribution of this research is showing that there are still large corporations – such as the Grand National sponsors of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games – that enter expens ive sponsorship agreements with only moderate consideration to the strategic and brand-building elements of sponsorship. As this study showed, not all cases prove that speci? c brandbuilding initiatives were put in place from the start of those relationships. The ? ndings discussed above hold managerial implications for both sponsorship executives and (sport) event properties. In addition to an overall strategy involving corporate brand management, it is important for sponsors to fully understand what speci? advantages are delivered through their sponsorships and how customers might view those companies’ sponsorship efforts in relation to other media tools. As Farrelly et al. (1997) have suggested, ? rms need to ? rst â€Å"research the role of sponsorship in the strategic plan, communication mix, and its place in the organizational hierarchy† (p. 178). Using a manager-based view of the Grand National Olympic sponsorships, the ? ndings are quite clear in showing that t his type of thinking had not yet (i. e. at the time of the interviews) been adequately established in these agreements. The majority of the 2004 Olympics Grand sponsors had dif? culties approaching their partnerships as a valuable esource able to create competitive advantage in the marketplace. Nevertheless, the marketing department of ATHOC, the Organizing Committee of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games also holds part of the responsibility for the lack of strategic thinking in the investments of some Grand sponsors. Organizing Committees in general hinge on the success of these agreements in order to generate income and positive evaluations on corporate business developments. In addition to the promotion of the unique image of the Games and the rights of the Olympic sponsorship program, it is in the overall interest of the event property to integrate real strategic thinking in the sponsorship program process.This strategic thinking can be oriented, for example, by encouraging and/or as sisting candidate sponsors to explore their strategic link between the Olympic Games’ audience and their ? rms’ target market and overall brand-related objectives. If the property (in this case OCOG) works proactively to promote the unique business links associated to their audience, the brand bene? ts, as well as the other opportunities for meaningful interactions with costumers, sponsors will be more willing to allocate resources on entering the agreements and spending for their full activation. This could result in real strategic and brand management thinking on the part of the selected national Olympic sponsors, as well.Given that the Olympic partnerships involve a four-year period of sponsorship privileges, a strategic approach is particularly critical in order to facilitate a sustained long-term successful partnership with mutual bene? ts. In closing, the results of the study imply that the need for adequate planning and strategic integration of sponsorship withi n other corporate marketing and branding efforts cannot be overstated. Especially with a property as unique as the Olympic Games, the need to be strategic in all decisions related to the sponsorship, to create new and leverage existing unique brand associations, and to implement speci? c measures of success in every step of the process is imperative for sponsors if unique bene? ts are to be realized. 220 References Aaker, D. A. (1991), Managing Brand Equity, The Free Press, New York, NY.Abratt, R. , Clayton, B. C. and Pitt, L. F. (1987), â€Å"Corporate objectives in sports sponsorship†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 6, pp. 299-311. Amis, J. (2003), â€Å"‘Good things come to those who wait’: the strategic management of image and reputation of Guinness†, European Sport Management Quarterly, Vol. 3 No. 3, pp. 189-214. Amis, J. , Pant, N. and Slack, T. (1997), â€Å"Achieving a sustainable competitive advantage: a resource-based view of sport s ponsorship†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 11, pp. 80-96. Amis, J. , Slack, T. and Berrett, T. (1999), â€Å"Sport sponsorship as distinctive competence†, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. Nos 3/4, pp. 250-73. Apostolopoulou, A. and Papadimitriou, D. (2004), â€Å"‘Welcome home’: motivations and objectives of the 2004 Grand National Olympic sponsors†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 180-92. Arthur, D. , Scott, D. , Woods, T. and Booker, R. (1998), â€Å"Sport sponsorship should . . . . A process model for the effective implementation and management of sport sponsorship programmes†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 49-60. Berrett, T. and Slack, T. (1999), â€Å"An analysis of the in? uence of competitive and institutional pressures on corporate sponsorship decisions†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 8, pp. 114-38. Brown, G. 2000), â€Å"Emerging issues in Olympic sponsorship: implications for host citie s†, Sport Management Review, Vol. 3, pp. 71-92. Chalip, L. and Leyns, A. (2002), â€Å"Local business leveraging of a sport event: managing an event for economic bene? t†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 16, pp. 132-58. Copeland, R. , McCarville, R. and Frisby, W. (1996), â€Å"Understanding the sport sponsorship process from a corporate perspective†, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 10, pp. 32-48. Cornwell, T. B. (1995), â€Å"Sponsorship-linked marketing development†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 13-24. Cornwell, T. B. and Maignan, I. (1998), â€Å"An international review of sponsorship research†, Sponsorship Business Review, Vol. 2, pp. 36-42. Cornwell, T. B. Roy, D. P. and Steinard, E. A. II (2001), â€Å"Exploring managers’ perceptions of the impact of sponsorship on brand equity†, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 41-51. Crimmins, J. and Horn, M. (1996), â€Å"Sponsorship: from management ego trip to marketing success†, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 36, July/August, pp. 11-21. Doherty, A. and Murray, M. (2007), â€Å"The strategic sponsorship process in a non-pro? t sport organization†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 49-59. Farrell, K. A. and Frame, W. S. (1997), â€Å"The value of Olympic sponsorships: who is capturing the Gold? †, Journal of Market Focused Management, Vol. 2, pp. 71-82. Farrelly, J. F. , Quester, P. G. and Burton, R. 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International Events Group (n. d. ), â€Å"Sponsorship spending worldwide†, Sponsorship Report, available at: www. sponsorship. com/learn/worldwidespending. asp (accessed July 2, 2007). International Olympic Committee (n. d. ), â€Å"Revenue generation 2001-2004†, Organisation Facts and Figures, available at: www. olympic. org/uk/organisation/facts/ revenue/index_uk. asp (accessed July 1, 2007). Irwin, R. L. and Asimakopoulos, M. K. 1992), â€Å"An approach to the evaluation and selection of sport sponsorship proposals†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 43-51. Jeanrenaud, C. (2006), â€Å"Sponsorship†, in Andreff, W. and Szymanski, S. (Eds), The Handbook on the Economics of Sport, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp. 49-58. Keller, K. L. (1993), â€Å"Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity†, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57 No. 1, pp. 1-22. Lachowetz, T. , McDonald, M. , Sutton, W. A. and Hedrick, D. G. (2003), â€Å"Corporate sales activities and the retention of sponsors in the National Basketball Association (NBA)†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 18-26. Lough, N. L. , Irwin, R. L. and Short, G. 2000), â€Å"Corporate sponsorship motives among North American companies: a contemporary analysis†, International Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 1, pp. 283-95. Ludwig, S. and Karabetsos, J. D. (1999), â€Å"Objectives and evaluation processes utilized by sponsors of the 1996 Olympic Games†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 8 No. 1, pp. 11-19. Meenaghan, T. (1998), â€Å"Commercial spo nsorship – the development of understanding†, International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 19-31. Miyazaki, A. D. and Morgan, A. G. (2001), â€Å"Assessing market value of event sponsoring: corporate Olympic sponsorships†, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 41, January, pp. 9-15. Polonsky, M. , Sandler, D. , Casey, M. , Murphy, S. , Portelli, K. and Van Velzen, Y. 1995), â€Å"Small business and sport sponsorship: the Australian experience†, Journal of Promotion Management, Vol. 3 Nos 1/2, pp. 121-40. Roy, D. P. and Cornwell, T. B. (2003), â€Å"Brand equity’s in? uence on responses to event sponsorships†, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 12 No. 6, pp. 377-93. Sandler, D. M. and Shani, D. (1993), â€Å"Sponsorship and the Olympic Games: the consumer perspective†, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 38-43. Scott, D. R. and Suchard, H. T. (1992), â€Å"Motivations for Australian expe nditure on sponsorship – an analysis†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 11, pp. 325-32. Shilbury, D. , Quick, S. and Westerbeek, H. (2003), Strategic Sport Marketing, 2nd ed. , Allen & Unwin, St Leonards. 221 Stipp, H. 1998), â€Å"The impact of Olympic sponsorship on corporate image†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 75-87. Thwaites, D. , Aguilar-Manjarrez, R. and Kidd, C. (1998), â€Å"Sports sponsorship development in leading Canadian companies: issues and trends†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 17, pp. 29-49. Wong, H. Y. and Merrilees, B. (2005), â€Å"A brand orientation typology for SMEs: a case research approach†, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 155-62. About the authors Dimitra Papadimitriou is a Lecturer in the Department of Business Management at the University of Patras, Greece. She teaches in the area of sport management and marketing.Her research interests include o rganizational theory, sport sponsorship and sport tourism, and her work has appeared in the European Sport Management Quarterly, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Sport Management Review, Managing Leisure, and the International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship. She is also the author of the book Management of Sport Enterprises and Organizations, published in 2005 by Kleidarithmos Publications. In addition, Dr Papadimitriou is an elected board member of the European Association for Sport Management and serves on the Editorial Board of the European Sport Management Quarterly journal. Dimitra Papadimitriou is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email  protected] gr Artemisia Apostolopoulou is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management in the School of Business at Robert Morris University, USA. She teaches sport management and marketing at the undergraduate and graduate level.Her primary area of research involves brand management and brand extension strategies impleme nted by sport organizations. Her secondary research interests include sponsorship and endorsement issues, as well as entertainment aspects of sport consumption. She has presented work at numerous national and international conferences, co-authored book chapters, and published research in Sport Marketing Quarterly and the International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship. Theofanis Dounis is a PhD candidate in the Department of Business Management at the University of Patras, Greece. He conducts research in the area of strategic management in the professional football industry.Executive summary and implications for managers and executives This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of the article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full bene? t of the material pr esent. This sporting life Corporate sponsorship of sport is a big business and it is growing. In 2003, for example, spend on sponsorship was calculated at $US25. 9 billion. A year later in 2004, it had risen to $28 billion. In anyone’s money, that’s a big business. Of this spend 69 percent goes to sporting events. Sport, it seems, is the ? rst among equals.Event sponsorship as a value creating strategy for brands Dimitra Papadimitriou, Artemisia Apostolopoulou and Theofanis Dounis Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 17  · Number 4  · 2008  · 212 –222 Within this or any other context the Olympic Games has become a phenomenon of our times. The ancients surely could not have imagined what was to come. The late nineteenth century/early twentieth century revivalists would be, one would suppose, either amazed or aghast. Organizers picking up the baton after the Second World War, such as the modest London Games of 1948, would still have little inkling of what was to come. A global TV audience and, some might argue, a shift in values, have changed the game.For global companies the Olympics deliver a global audience and provide a more or less unique opportunity to reinforce brand values and build reputation. It is an opportunity not to be missed. It only comes around every four years. Athenian outcomes British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, on being asked what represented the gr

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World Religions - Essay Example Swami Vivekananda was a very charismatic representative for Hinduism in America. Even though he died only a few years after first coming to America, he was able to establish many societies dedicated to Advaita Vedanta, which is based on the teachings of Ramakrishna, an Indian saint. These various societies developed into several formal movements including the Self-realization Fellowship and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, more commonly known as the "Hare Krishnas". As immigration from India has increased over the years, Hindu temples have added to the varied architectural landscape of America. These temples are constructed in the style of temples from northern and southern India. They are blessed by Hindu priests and offer a safe have for believers to escape the materialistic impulses that rule so much of American life. Hindu temples stand as a symbol of cultural acceptance and tolerance, adding to the cultural mosaic that makes up America. Orthodox Hindus, those conducting serious investigations of the Hindu religion with an eye on converting, as well as the simply curious are all welcome to visit the temple. This reality shows that in some ways, Hinduism and American culture are a good fit. Hinduisms tolerance for other religions has also affected culture in America. Aside from influencing authors and artists, Adivaita Vedantas universalism has affected certain liberal leaning Christian churches. The "New Age " movement also can link directly to the tenets of Hinduism in regards to acceptance of other religious beliefs, the belief in a plurality of paths to enlightenment and a commitment to non-violence and pacifism. While Hinduism has not grown to be a major religion in America in numbers of actual adherents, it has nonetheless had substantial influence. From art to architecture to the melding of

Spiritual Needs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Spiritual Needs - Essay Example The patient’s spiritual goal was to keep holy and be righteous so at to maintain a continual intimate relationship with Jesus and God the father. In regard to life, illness and death, she believed that God gives life at will and takes it at will through any means. She believed that illness could either be an expected occurrence in the mortal bodies of human kind, a judgment from God, or a means through which God can show his power. The patient’s spirituality provided her with support, strength and inspiration during times of illness by giving her hope of healing because of God’s divine intervention. It also prepared her for the worst like death by assuring her an eternally happier, peaceful and painless life after death. The patient requested to have their church members and pastors to be allowed to her room to give her spiritual support through prayers, read the bible and worship with her. In her view, the hospital should provide a bible and regular pastoral support if this is possible. From the assessment, I discovered that the patient has specific spiritual needs that increase in times of stresses like illnesses. The patient also loved to have time for prayer and meditation at three o’clock both day and night. As a nurs e, I will reschedule his assessment times to ensure her three o’clock are uninterrupted.... Resources to be availed to meet the patient’s spiritual needs. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Summary of Assessment Findings The patient was a protestant and he expressed her spirituality through prayers, worship, reading of the bible and meditation. These practices formed an essential part of her life. She explained that spirituality helps her maintain a focus in enjoying eternity in heaven. The patient’s spiritual goal was to ke ep holy and be righteous so at to maintain a continual intimate relationship with Jesus and God the father. In regard to life, illness and death, she believed that God gives life at will and takes it at will through any means. She believed that illness could either be an expected occurrence in the mortal bodies of human kind, a judgment from God, or a means through which God can show his power. The patient’s spirituality provided her with support, strength and inspiration during times of illness by giving her hope of healing because of God’s divine intervention. It also prepared her for the worst like death by assuring her an eternally happier, peaceful and painless life after death. The patient requested to have their church members and pastors to be allowed to her room to give her spiritual support through prayers, read the bible and worship with her. In her view, the hospital should provide a bible and regular pastoral support if this is possible. Significant discov eries about the patient From the assessment, I discovered that the patient has specific spiritual needs that increase in times of

Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 17

Annotated Bibliography Example Though the power coefficient of some of these turbines may be relatively low, they also work under low-quality winds. The writer claims that air flow approaching a wind turbine slows down by creating a low- pressure region behind the turbine. This pressure difference between the two sides of the propeller blades reduces the efficiency of doing work and increases the cost of wind power generation. Following to such loss a wing structure placed at a distance around the turbine is used to increase the power of the wind turbine by a factor of 2.0. The propeller is tightly fitted onto the inner shroud without leaving space between the tips of the propeller blades and the shroud. This method of improving wind turbine efficiency reduces the cost of generating wind power. These authors believe that the use of mantle’s nozzle which can be regulated can generate more quantities of electric power in wind turbine. The nozzle that is aerodynamically shaped ring induces a centrifugal force in the wind stream thus replacing free air stream with a concentrated stream of air. As a result, higher mass of air flows and velocity of this air behind the rotor reduced giving a higher energy output from the wind turbine in the nozzle. This increases the profit and reduces the cost of generating wind power. Though speed variation will increase, the concentration factor fc=2.5, it becomes inconvenient to work with wind at speeds exceeding the rated one. It is for this reason that control blades are installed on the frame side to let the excess air bypass the turbine rotor. This is however an additional cost and weight whose effects are adverse as well. These experts argue that steering aero foils are used to increase the rotational speed of wind blades. They are fixed surrounding the wind blades at an optimum distance whereby the angle of inclination can be valid. By adjusting the length and the angle of tilt, the rate can be

Analysis of Wisconsin v Mitchell (1993) Case Essay

Analysis of Wisconsin v Mitchell (1993) Case - Essay Example Mitchell reminded the group about their discussion and instigated them to attack the white boy. Thereafter, the group accosted the white youth, beat him unconscious and stole his footwear. Mitchell’s sentence was enhanced, as he had intentionally selected the victim on the basis of the latter’s race. It was to be decided, whether such enhancement of punishment was in breach of Mitchell’s First Amendment rights. The US Supreme Court concluded that the First Amendment rights of Mitchell had not been violated, by the enhancement provision of the Wisconsin penalty. As the Supreme Court of Wisconsin had ruled that such breach had transpired, the US Supreme Court reversed that decision and remanded the case for further proceedings that would not be inconsistent with its opinion. In addition, the US Supreme Court held that there was no tangible disparity between the federal and state antidiscrimination laws and the Wisconsin statute. To this end, the Court made a comparison between the Wisconsin statute and Title VII, which renders it illegal for an employer to subject an employee to discrimination on ground of color, religion, gender, race, or national origin (Resler, 1994, p. 422). It was surmised by the US Supreme Court that the Wisconsin statute accords punishment of greater severity for bias motivated crimes, as these crimes had a much greater potential to engender harm to the individual and society. This reason was deemed to be adequate to justify the penalty enhancement facility available in the Wisconsin statute, and which transcended mere disagreement with the prejudices of proclivities of the offender (Resler, 1994, p. 423). Mitchell had been sentenced for aggravated battery. This sentence was enhanced, in accordance with a Wisconsin statute, as he had intentionally selected the victim on the basis of the latter’s race. His appeal regarding the constitutionality of the Wisconsin statute was

Competitor Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Competitor Analysis - Research Paper Example The Toyota FJ Cruiser is its closest competitor with its similar off-road and SUV qualities, which are reminiscent of the FJ40 Land Cruisers. The car is built by Hino Motors, a Toyota subsidiary, in Japan and has shared numerous underpinnings of structure with the Toyota Prado (Consumers Union of United States 48). It debuted in its final form of production in 2006, following its introduction in 2003 as a concept car, and has been the Wrangler Jeep’s fiercest competitor in the SUV off-road category ever since. The automotive press with both acclaim and criticism has received the Toyota FJ Cruiser. One of its main strengths is that it is purpose driven and aggressively styled, especially considering that Toyota has been more focused on conservative designs (Schlee 1). Its off-road performance has also been praised, especially with regards to its functional interior and road manners. It has been highly praised by off road users because of its high performance. In addition, the Toyota FJ Cruiser has a large towing capacity compared to the Jeep Wrangler, which makes it better for pulling heavy loads, especially in an off-road environment. However, its body roll has been criticized, as has its lateral grip performance that is too low (Schlee 1), although it should also be noted that its suspension is designed for off road and long travel use. One of the major drawbacks for the FJ Cruiser is that exit and entry for the back seat is rather cumbersome (Best Cars 1). Another shortcoming is its blind spots, which make reverse parking difficult on the street due to restrictions placed on its rear visibility from its design. It also has smaller than average capacity, especially with the aforementioned cramped back seat area. With regards to limitation of visibility and blind spots, the FJ Cruiser’s low roofline and far away windshield limits ability to see ahead (Best Cars 1). The tire

SATS Air Cargo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

SATS Air Cargo - Essay Example Correspondingly, the organizational operations of SATS have also seen changes over the years owing to the changing nature of its customers. With the increasing number of customers in the cargo sector of the airline market, SATS initiated the SIA Superhub 2 also known as the Airfreight Terminal 6 in the year 2001 with an investment of around $270 million. This approach of the company accompanied it with the ability to handle 800,000 tonnes of cargo per year, which was also accounted among the biggest capacities during that time. Furthermore, the customers in the cargo handling sector of the airline industry have also become more attracted towards online web based operations in course of time. Contextually, SATS introduced the web-based cargo tracking services in the year 2003 in order to meet the changing expectations of the customers (SATS 20111). Increased Competition With the augmented number of operations of various companies in the cargo sector of the airline industry, the compet ition has become more intense. ... This step of the company ensured the loyalty of the customers with the company for a longer period of time. Moreover, in similar regard, it has also introduced a new brand promise to the customers, which further states as â€Å"One with you† (SATS 20111). Furthermore, since there are various numbers of companies offering similar kind of products to the customers, only effective or innovative services would ensure enhanced operational services for any company including SATS. To comply with this aspect, the company has been continuously changing its service offering patterns to the customers so that their valuable association with the company continues for a longer period of time (SATS 20111). Part 2- SATS Air Cargo Competition SATS DHL Singapore Airlines Market Share .0019% 11.49% .0.02% Share Price as of Submission .31% (2013) Singapore Exchange 1.03 % (2013) (Singapore Exchange n.d.) .48% (2013) (Singapore Exchange n.d.) Stock Turnover 27.70 (2013) (Singapore Exchange n.d.) 2 3.56 (2013) (Singapore Exchange n.d.) 35.50 (2013) (Singapore Exchange n.d.) Revenue 2008- S$1,062,094 2009- S$ 1,538,906 2010- S$ 1,729,131 2011- S$ 1,685,413 2012- S$ 1,818,992 (SATS 20112) 2008- S$ 7,474,908,000 2009- S$ 6,175,362,000 2010- S$ 7,525,278,000 2011- S$ 8,223,343,128 2012- S$ 8,405,745,600 (Deutsche Post AG 2013) 2008- S$ 186,245 2009- S$ 181,752 2010- S$ 145,834 2011- S$ 159,980 2012- S$ 169,157 (Singapore Airlines 2012) Resources People: The chairman of the Edmund Cheng Wai Wing was appointed in the year 2012. Apart from him, there are also some other crucial members altogether forming the management team of the organization. Brand Position: With more than 60 years of operations in the airline industry, the company has acquired the reputation to be called as one of

Market structures Essay Example for Free

Market structures Essay This week was very informative and interesting for me, I have learned a lot from this week. This week has helped me in comparing various market structures and their characteristic, along with evaluating the effectiveness of competitive strategies within market structures. Furthermore, this week has helped me in determining profit-maximizing strategies based on market structure analysis. Some of the most interesting things learned were the examples of monopolistically, oligopoly and monopoly. Keeping the concepts of Monopoly, oligopoly and perfect competition straight has proven to be a real challenge. The amount of information presented is overwhelming at times. I had to step back and reread several sections repeatedly to ensure a clear understanding. The side-by-side comparisons of market structure was very helpful and presented in a manner that was clear and concise, promoting a better understanding of their differences. Monopolistically would be coffee shops there is a lot of different coffee shops in one area each coffee shops offers certain specialize different from the other shops. An oligopoly would be vet office with only a few in a certain locations. An example of monopoly market would be a telephone company that is assigned to a certain area. A monopoly is a company that rules a location but if priced to high from competitors can lose if monopoly. When firms consider profit-maximizing strategies it is important to look at the short-term and long-term processes of product output. When doing this, one needs examine the different types of competition. Any market types of competition will affect a company’s marginal revenue and marginal costs. A monopoly can control the market of certain goods or service, and a phone company is an example of this. Phone companies often are the only supplier, so they have no competition and set their prices as consumers will pay them. In a monopolistic comp etitive environment competitive strategies are constantly changing because of different goods and services hitting the market. Finally, an oligopoly environment an organization will bear in mind how its actions will affect its rivals. Many firm’s use the concepts to be successful. I was able to understand what a market economy is. I also was able to understand how a market works. A market works by an individual providing a service and in return that person would be compensated for that service. Also when someone wants a product in order to receive that product a payment is made in exchange for thus product. The chapter also goes on to discuss capitalism and socialism, I would define socialism as a society making the decision about what people want and need and how much of those products to produce, basically the society is making the decision. Capitalism I feel based on the definition stated in the text book, can be defined as when a small group of individuals have the main control over the controlling companys of products and service that are used on a daily basis. This allows them to set a price and the amount of the product or service that are available. The chapter also makes us aware of feudalism, which basically means you follow the footsteps of your predecessors, if your parents were farmers you will be a farmer, in essence following the traditions. The chapter also discusses Mercantilism, this in essence means that the government has the means and the rights to hire a non government controlled company in order to achieve the needs of the government. I did very well with the various market structures and their characteristics, but not so well with the other topics. A monopoly is the only player in their respective industry. An example of a monopoly is the local power company because you cant get power anywhere else, unless it is natural energy. An oligopoly is similar to a monopoly but there is more than one firm that dominates the market. An example of an oligopoly is the operating software for smart phones, which has two dominate players, Apple and Google. Monopolistic competition is where many companies sell basically the same product with minor differences. Perfect competition is when everyone sells the same thing, everyone has the same information, and it is easy to enter and exit into the market. I personally do not believe that an example of perfect competition exists; the closest industry may be agriculture. For firms to maximize their profits costs need to be kept low and revenues need to be boosted. Whichever route a company uses to maximize profits, it will affect both cost and revenue. For instance, if a company decides to advertise a new product, the advertising will affect cost and revenue. The price of the advertising will increase the costs of the product, but at the same time increase revenues because consumers are now aware of the product. The chapters on Monopoly Perfect Competition were as I had previously understood, and the conditions for each make sense. The development of evolving economic systems as discussed in Chapter 3 was like a history lesson review and the restatement of the three different types of businesses that exist (sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporation) a good reminder of what has been learned in prior classes. I gained some new understandings of Monopolistic Competition I had never heard the two used together before, but is a nice blend of the two market types. I didnt struggle with any of these things. What I did struggle with was the concepts, structures, and quite frankly the math surrounding Pricing and Profit Maximization in all the markets. I found it counter intuitive to my experience in business to not produce more, so as to create demand and keep pricing high, as is suggested in a Monopoly. The profit maximizing exercise was a challenge which boiled down to MR = MC is the profit maximizing rule for the monopolist. (Colander, 2010) This differs from the profit maximizing equation for Perfect Competition which is MC = MR = P but the TR and TCC graph for evaluating the best output level is perplexing and will likely take me the better part of 20 minutes to put one together myself I did enjoy this week’s team assignment. Was enjoyable writing about the new product option and th eorizing about the potential for said product. This week’s readings covered many different kinds of market structures. Starting with the basic Perfect Competition where the businesses sell the exact same product, to a monopoly that states that there is only one business that has complete control. From Monopolistic Competition which is where the businesses sell a similar product but not an identical product to the Oligopoly which is where there a few giants that control the industry. We went through all the different market structures, and there were many examples that were given to help explain the differences between the different market structures. One of the parts of the reading that I found very interesting, was on page 369, it discussed the idea of a sticky prices† This is where the idea is that if one company lowers its prices to try and gain business. The other businesses that are in competition will lower their prices too. This will prevent anyone from getting an edge on the competition. The gas prices are a perfect example of this. In Chapter 15, the cost of Welfare Cost Triangle, is discussed. The Welfare Cost Triangle is one of the many reasons that Monopolys are frowned upon by economists. It creates an untrue reflection to the cost to the society. With a monopoly the business can charge any price that they see fit and therefore it creates and unbalanced marginal cost. Chapter 3 discussed the idea that it is not just the United States Economy that is affected across the world. Many times as we are going through our lessons, and we, as a class are discussing economics, I fail to remember that there are many more markets in the world then just the United States. The chapter discusses the history of economics and how they work in the different social environments. They were very straight forward and very self explanatory. References: Colander, D. C. (2010).Economics (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Effects on Light and Colour on Our Environment

Effects on Light and Colour on Our Environment Light and colour have the ability to have a profound effect on the we perceive and interactive with our environment, effecting us holistically, in mind, body, and spirit. Altering the way we experience space, changing our perception of spatial definition and proportion. Light and colour serve as mediums for communication and information. They aid orientation and influence movement; differentiate space, establish hierarchy and indicate function; conveys symbolic messages; they are an expression of the Zeitgeist and connect us to the world in which we live. Light and colour have major impacts on our psychologically influencing our emotion, feeling and creating associations, physiologically impacting on our well-being on both a visual and non visual basis. Piturity gland etc.? One would usually associate the above solely with the sense of sight but both light and colour induce synesthesia, evoking associations with senses such as taste, smell, kinesthesia, temperature and according to some even effect our perception of time. The way we comprehend and experience light and colour it more complex than a simple optical stimulation. Our perception is a result of interplay of both physiological and the psychological factors in the conscious and subconscious. We have many prepossessions and preconceptions and light and colour which can be formed through personal experience, be a result of cultural influences and/or eduction or be part of genetic make up, developed over millions of year of evolution. There are six basic interdependent factors which combine to give us are perception of light and colour, biological reactions; the collective unconscious; conscious symbolism and association; cultural and mannerisms; trends, fashions and styles; and personal relationships and factors Biological Reaction Our biological reactions occurs not just as a result of the visual pathway. Light and thus colour aslo effect us a through neural pathway or energitic pathway. Through the energietic pathway light and colour stiumli are carried directly to the brain and onto the pineal and putrity glands, which control the production of hormones. This in turn can effect the likes of, metabolism, blood pressure, stress and aggression. The Collective Unconscious the collective unconscious refers to perception which is not rationalised by our conscious thoughts or our own personal experiences. According to Jungian psycholgy the collective unconscious is the part of our psche that has nothing to do with conscious or unconscious reaction based on personal experience amessed during our life time The collective unconscious consists of architypes, primordial and latent images, impressions and associations, in our gentic make up. Predispositions devloped thorugh millions of years evolution and the development of our species and cause us to interpret the environment in same way our predecessor The authors Hall and Nordby describe it as: the collective unconscious is a reservoir of latent images, usually called primordial images by Jung. Primordial mean the first or the original therefore the primordial image refer to the earliest development of the psyche. Man inherits these images from his ancestral past, a past that includes all of human ancestors as well as his prehuman or animal ancestors. Conscious Symbolism Funadmental associations and impressions made in the conscious. There are many associations to certain colour with are universally, and are read the same no matter the culture or eduction, for example yellow with light, blue with the sun and green with nature. The symbolism of the light and colour can be particulary significant in the field of architecture due to there connects to evoking mood and feeling. Light and colour suggest warmth or coolness, alter one perception of whether a room is friendly, etc Cultural influences Although there are many colour associations which are universal, we must also consider how different culture have different associations for some colours. For example japanese culture tends to be more responsive to softer colours, prehaps this relates to a greater appreciation of materiality. Indian culture on the other hand has a greater affinity to loud, bright and vivid colouration. There are also certain colours which gain greater significance in a certain colour. An example of this is the religious importance of green in Islam. Trends Fashion and Style Our interpretation and perfernces of colour can affect by what is in vogue at a particular time. Trends in the built environment tend to change on a less regular basis than in other. Although responsing to trends in architect and interior design may not result in creating the most beneficial environmets as different enviroments have different requirements, trends can be important in producing a sense of zeigheist. Such as ? Personal Relationships and Factors Our relationship to space is highly influenced by personal and subjective factors such as personal dispostion and specific personal experience, for example one would usually associate blue with coolness but if burnt by a blue object may induce an connection to heat. Other personal factors can change perceptions of light colour include sensitivity, age, character and temperament and are physical and psychological make up. Colour psychology can be separated in to interlinked subdivisions, applied colour psychology and depth colour psychology applied colour psychology is the one that generally applies to architecture. It deals with the implementation of the predetermined psychological effects to create a spatial ambiance to produce psychical benefits thus physiological benefits, or to convey a specific imagery. More? Symbolism and imagery of light and colour. For it is through symbols that man finds his way out of his particular situation and opens himself to the general and the universal. Symbols awaken an individual experience and transmit into a spiritual act, into a metaphysical comprehension of the world- Mircea Eliade For thousands of years natural light has been used for its powerful associations, for early man light held more significance than perhaps any other time, it was the giver of life and revered to the extent of worshipping the sun. Its significance however has diminished especially since the intrusion of artificial light Light can be regarded as metaphorical in conjuring thoughts of another place or notion. It can be symbolic, representing something else often that which immaterial such as infinity, and often symbolic of that which we do not fully comprehend. Light has the quality to produce a power ephemeral state of being. For link to times season Zeitgeist? Darkness is also important in this experience not only as a contrast too dark but in its own symbolism and representations, and the states of mind it creates, the lack of light suppress the visual, heightening the other senses. Strong darkness presents the unknown leading to states of apprehension, unease and even to phobia. The interplay of light and dark can lead to the the creation of contemplative or theatrical light. Luis Barragan advocates the use of what he calls half-light architects are forgetting the human need for half-light the sort of light that imposes a tranquillity, in their living rooms as well as their bedrooms we should try to recover mental and spiritual ease and to alleviate anxiety, the salient characteristic of these agitated times, and the pleasures of thinking, working, conversing are heightened by the absence of glaring light One of the few cultures in which the design of such environments is prevalent is in Japanese traditions. Quote for in praise of shadows and example? Another way to create places of contemplation is to use diffuse or baffled light, producing a level of uniformity contemplation is nourished by the lack of distractions Metaphorical Light Metaphorical light extends the role of light beyond that of simply of revealing, it denotes light that is used to conjure a visions of a different locality, for example its can be used to as a representation of nature, blurring boundaries giving one the impression that they are not in a interior setting. The use of metaphorical lighting is vivid in the works of artist Edward Hopper. In his painting New York Movie, Hopper uses contrasts in light to differentiate between the fanstay world of the theatre and the reality in which the usher carries on with her everyday life. Symbolic light is used as a representation of the immaterial and the unembodied, beyond that which is portrayed by the metaphorical, complex notions such as life and death. An powerful example of this is the Vietnam War memorial in Washington D.C. The names of the dead are inscribed in the specular granite surface of the wall. The ever-changing reflections of light and the surrounding remind us of our place and temporal natural in this world and thus our mortality. For thousands of years light has been associated with the spiritual facets and seen as the manifestation of divinity and the ethereal. Since prehistoric man light, the sun have been connected to the scared, prehistoric worshipped the sun build monuments align to its summer solstice to honour it, as this was when its was its most powerful. Tombs were also built with reference to the sun, often align to face the sun rise on the summer solstice. The light of a new day and the rising sun gave hope of an after life the natural language of light and dark is a powerful one with which to express architectural meaning Specific colour also hold symbolic associations. Many of these are fairly obvious, however these initial associations over time have lead subsequent affiliations or can take on induce different connections. The collective findings from a number of experiments have shown that many are universal however there may be slight variations in different cultures and religions. Associations have from human experience, going all the way back to early man. As discussed above primordial images etc have been stored in the human genome past on from generation to generation and contribute to our colour perception. Eckart Heimendahl suggests that our colour perception develops from three types of symbolism: ritual symbolism, traditional symbolism and aesthetic-emotional(psychological) level symbolism, which fuse to give us our experience of colour one of the most striking features of the results concerning perference, connotation and colour-mood associatations is the consistancy from one individual to another, from group to group and cross-culturally. There has been a great number of cross-cultural studies comparing subjects in America, lebanon, Kenya, Botswana, greece to mention a few. Monkeys have been compared to Man, men to women, children to adults, layman to architects. As another author concludes, it would indicate either that our heritage is such that we learn correct responses, or that there is some innate mood reaction to different colors (Kuller 1981 p.164) The message a colour conveys and thus it psychological effect is dependent on colours hue and the environment in which it sits. Even the slightest change it a hue nuance can alter its meaning. The materiality of the colour also plays a significant role in this process, which will be discussed later. The following will give and over the imagery and messages that the prominent hues are affiliated to. Red is a warm, stimulating colour with both positive and negative associations. It positive connotations include the aforementioned warmth due to its connection to fire, as well as passion, strength, activity and love. Its more negative affiliations include rage and aggression, ferocity, although these have served a purpose throughout history. An example of this in military, where red was used to change mind sets and convey a aggression. Red also represent blood, which to some may portray an unfavourable message, can also represent life. This is perhaps linked to early man who may have concluded that blood gave life after seeing blood leave the body a slaughtered prey. Love? Red is the dominant and attention grabbing colour as its focus point is behind the retina which give the impression that it is protruding pink? orange is a largely positive colour and is generally considered to have very few negative connotations. Although less assertive than red its is still vibrant and energetic, with lighter tone being cheering. Orange also has connections to nature reminding us of autumn and sunsets. Brown is a darker tone of orange which again has strong connections to nature, prompting thoughts of the earth. As it is earthly is suggest security and stability. However certain shade of brown may be less pleasant and dreary and even dispiriting. Yellow is considered to be the happiest colour due to it luminous and radiant nature and thus it tends to raise ones spirits. Perhaps its is most powerful and spiritual affiliation with the sun, and therefore with light and life. Yellow was also the colour of mercury in, best known for being the messenger of the god, but was the god of commerce and profit, as well as the god of the traveller, thus yellow can represent spiritual enlightenment. Green focus precisely on the retina and therefore is the easiest colour on the eye. As a result green is relaxing and refreshing. One of green major associations is nature and vigorous growth. Early rituals were based around the lush green of vegetation and thus is a symbol of food and life, and as a subsequence in Christianity represents hope and immortality. Green also has significant religious value in Islam where it is regarded as a holy colour. In stark contrast certain variations of green can convey a message of mould and decay and as a result death. Depending on its position between yellow and blue green has different effect, a green closer to yellow will appear to be more stimulating where as bluish green appear cooler and more tranquil Blue like green is relaxing and retiring, but appear cooler than green although darker tones appear to feel warmer. Materialtiy also affects its relative warmth, a dark blue, thick carpet will not provoke a cold feeling. Blue induces feelings of calmness and as a result contemplation and due to its obvious connection to water blue gives expresses cleanliness. However if not used correctly blue can be cold and depressing as refered to in the phrase I have the blues. Blues symbolism has a number of cultural variations. In Rome blue was the colour of a philosopher robe and reflected wisdom. In China blue symbolises immortality and holiness to Hebrews. purple/violet white symbolises many positive things, architecture it prompts a sense of openness and freedom, a white space will always feel more expensive, however if the portion of white is to greater it gives a sense of emptiness. From a multi-discipline perspective, white conjures images of cleanliness, purity, innocence and peace. In Asia white is the colour of mourning but in a positive way, as the believe that death on this earth is the beginning of a better life. black grey Over and under stimulation In terms of of both physiological and psychological factors the balance of stimulation is important in providing the right environment. Both over-stimulation and under-stimulation can have adverse affects on our well-being and the overall impression of a space. For an environment to be most beneficial a balanced variety should be sort. Balance is the securing of unity midst variety. Both variety and unity are required to sustain interest, and these opposing forces must be balanced. Variety is necessary to attract and arouse interest; unity is essential to create a favourable impression and desires. Variety overdone is confusing and unpleasant. Unity overdone is monotonous. The mark of colour arrangement is knowing where to stop between these extremes Exposure to an overly complex visually chaotic environment or extremely monotony, whether it be through colour, pattern or contrast can effect us physiologically by triggering changes in rates of breathing, blood pressure and pulse, thus lead to increased stress levels Over stimulation can induce an increase in muscle tension and is believed to increase ones susceptibility to infection which can lead to ulcers and coronary disease. Surprisingly dull under-stimulating environments can cause increases in heart rate. With no external stimulation one becomes more aware of there inner self. Subject to individuals mentally and nature if their thought, this can lead to fear, anxiety and distress. On a psychological level an under stimulating and thus sensory deficiency setting is known to lead to a lack of concentration, restlessness and irritability. Under stimulation can also lead to perception disorders. It cannot be stressed enough that the balance between unity and complexity is the first and most important rule in the design in beneficial environments However in certain situation it can be the designer objective to create space which are under stimulating. It space may be design as a spiritual and contemplative space which encourages one to look inside themselves for enlightenment To understand the extent of light and colours effect, we must consider it on its own as well as the how it reacts and relates to its environment. Our cognition of light and colour can be largely influenced by how they contrast with there surroudings. There a number of different contrast relationships which alter the way perceive and distinguish: Light-Dark Contrast In its simplest terms this is the contrast between light and shadow. But can also refer the to difference between lightness of colours, but the contrast is most prominent in the achromatic i.e. when no hue is involved. Light dark contrast can be useful for differentiating space. However too great a contrast will cause visual fatigue and strain. Chromatic-Achromatic contrast. Combining the chromatic with the achromatic will alter the perceived intensity and luminosity of the chromatic colour. White and grey nuances weaken a colours luminosity and therefore can be used to neutralise. On the other hand black increase a colours luminosity. Complementary Contrast Complementary contrast occurs between two colour which are as different as possible, location directly opposite on a colour wheel. Each complementary contrast has its own unique feature. For example a contrast between orange and blue gives the greatest warm-cool definition and a yellow-violet contrast give the most intense light-dark contrast. Effect/importance Intensity contrast Describes the contrast between colours of the different saturation. Intensity contrast is best used when a when small amount of pure colour are used as an accent amongst muted colours, which give a particular feature emphases while maintaining the over ambiance of the space. Quantity Contrast Quantity contrast is the proportional relationship between the colours in a space. The proportion of a particular colour plays major role in establishing spatial definition and impression Flicker Contrast licker is a over stimulating contrast, occurring when intense colours with similar lightness or darkness are combined is a space. This type of contrast shows that the colouration has not been considered appropriately, flicker contrasts should be avoid. There are two other physiological contrast which also need to be taken into account when assessing the impact of colour, successive contrast and simultaneous contrast. Simultaneous contrast is the phenomenon where by a colour will be perceived differently with a different foreground, background or environment. For example if a neutral grey is place on a surrounding colour background the grey will appear to have a hint of the complementary colour of the background colour. The perceive change is not reality but is a result of ones colour sensation. Simultaneous contrast does not just affect hue and saturation but also brightness. For example grey will appear lighter against a darker background Successive contrast is a phenomenon where by if one is subjected to a colour stimulus for an excessive amount of time an after image of its complementary colour will occur. For example if one stares at a red surface for a prolonged period of time then look at a white surface, the white surface will appear to be blue green. This after-image is believed to be the result of fatigue. The affect is temporary but nevertheless can be disturbing. e.g.? The physiological reality is that the eye requires any given give colour to be balanced by its complementary, and will generate it if it is not present. Complementary colours also provide psychological balance to warmth and coolness of colour. The after image is a physiological effect which indicates than use us of complementary colours the the most effective way of creating a harmonious space Synesthesia Synesthesia (Greek, syn= together + aisthesis= perception) is a neurological condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality evokes a experience in another modality, or the crossing of two or more sense. Light and colour not only stimulate the sense of sight but arouses sensations in many other of the other senses through visual and non visual means. Perception of weight as a general rule darker and more saturated colours will appear to be heavier and more dense than lighter and less saturated colours. Warmer colours will also seem heavier than the cooler coolers if the same hue Perception of volume and distance The lighter a space is the more open it will be perceived to be thus a space will appear to have a larger volume than a dark space. Within a space lighter colours, cooler colours and small patterns will appear to recede. With darker or more saturated seeming the protrude thus making distances seem shorter. Perception of temperature it is widely believed that visually, colour can alter our perception of whether a room is warm or cool. Since the formation of the hypothesis several experiments have been observed which seem to prove what was thought . One such example is described by Johannes Itten in his book The Elements of Colour, is experiment illustrates a significant difference in the temperature at an individual felt cold in different coloured room Occupants of the blue-green felt that 59 degrees Fahrenheit was cold, where as the temperature had to fall to 52 degrees Fahrenheit in the red-orange room before the subjects felt cold evidence from a corresponding Norwegian study drew a similar conclusion, in which subjects set a thermostat four degrees lower in a red room compared to a blue room. However test also showed that the effect where only temporary and after a period of time the effects begin to diminish. Perception of Taste and Odours Certain colours can evokes associations with tastes or smells. Colours such as lavender, pale yellow and pink have pleasant associations with smell and colours such as coral, soft yellow and light green are associated with pleasant tastes. These affiliations can be useful in industrial situation to help improve unpleasant environments Perception of Sound Gestalt psychologists such as Heinz Warner, Krakov, Allen and Schwartz have produced evidence that strong odour and taste can alter our perception of colour. It is suggested that strong taste and odours make us more less sensitive to red and more to green. On a similar note through colour association can be used to offset loud environments. For example one may mentally connect highly saturated warm colour with being loud, cool and low saturated colour having the opposite effect, thus cool or low saturated colour can be used to help offset noisy environments a noisy atmosphere will be experienced subjectively as nosier or more bothersome if paint with glaring yellows or reds. Shrill and high pitched sounds may be offset by olive green Perception of Time Some researchers believe that light, colour and pattern can alter our estimation of time. One theory is that subdued, monotonous spaces cause one to overestimated time. Perhaps this is related to boredom and under-stimulation. It is a common conception that time passes more quickly when one is enjoying themselves. Light, colour and our perception of space. Space remains in oblivion without light. Lights shadows and shades, its different sources, its opacity,transparency, translucency and conditions of reflection and refraction intertwine to define or redefine space. Light subjects space to uncertainty, forming a kind of tentative bridge through fields of experience Steven Holl The way we use and perceive a space is greatly influence by light and colour along with the factors described. Above the have the ability to define boundaries and differentiate spaces. They provide orientation and consciously and unconsciously affect how we move through a building. Furthermore due to the synesthetic sensations they induce as described above, light and colour alter the perceived dimensioning of a space. Space, as we experience it in architectural settings is a result of our entire perceptual system. One sees the environment not with the eyes but with eyes-in-the-head-on-the-body-resting-on-the-ground As we have found out light and shadow can be a powerful tool with which to reveal meaning. However they also play a major role in defining our sense of space, if we manipulate light we alter our perception of architectural space. Before structure, walls, ceiling and floor, it was light which estbalished boundaries. At night a room for early man was defined by light admitted by fire, the extremity of which came when light faded into darkness.